Past AMC 8 Scores & Historical Results Data


Past AMC 8 Scores & Historical Results Data

The Mathematical Affiliation of America’s American Arithmetic Competitions 8 (AMC 8) is a 25-question, 40-minute, multiple-choice examination in center college arithmetic designed to advertise the event of problem-solving expertise. A report of scores, together with cutoff scores for achievement awards just like the Distinguished Honor Roll and Honor Roll, offers beneficial information for college kids, lecturers, and faculties. Inspecting previous efficiency information can supply insights into particular person pupil progress and areas for enchancment. For instance, analyzing which drawback sorts offered the best problem in earlier competitions can inform focused observe and instruction.

Entry to this information permits educators to determine tendencies in pupil efficiency over time, assess the effectiveness of curriculum changes, and benchmark their college students towards nationwide averages. Moreover, archived competitors supplies, together with questions and options from prior years, function a wealthy useful resource for enriching arithmetic schooling. These sources allow college students to familiarize themselves with the model and issue of the competitors and develop efficient test-taking methods. This historic info additionally gives a perspective on the evolution of the competitors itself, reflecting adjustments in mathematical pedagogy and emphasis.

This exploration delves additional into the specifics of accessing and using these beneficial sources, specializing in sensible functions for college kids, educators, and anybody excited by arithmetic schooling. Subjects lined will embrace the place to seek out archived information, methods for analyzing previous efficiency, and successfully incorporate historic competitors supplies into curriculum improvement and pupil preparation.

1. Rating Distributions

Rating distributions are a vital element of AMC 8 historic outcomes, providing beneficial insights into the efficiency of members. Evaluation of those distributions reveals tendencies in pupil proficiency throughout completely different mathematical matters and total problem-solving skills. Inspecting the frequency of explicit scores offers a transparent image of the general issue stage of a given competitors 12 months. A distribution skewed in direction of decrease scores would possibly counsel a tougher examination, whereas a distribution centered round increased scores might point out a relatively simpler examination. This understanding allows educators and competitors organizers to make knowledgeable selections about curriculum improvement and future examination design.

As an example, if a good portion of scholars constantly struggles with issues involving a particular idea like combinatorics, it highlights an space requiring better consideration in instructional sources and instruction. Conversely, if efficiency on geometry questions constantly exceeds expectations, it means that present instructing strategies for geometry are efficient. Evaluating rating distributions throughout a number of years permits for the identification of long-term tendencies. A constant enchancment in scores associated to a particular matter would possibly counsel the success of a selected pedagogical strategy, whereas a decline might point out the necessity for changes in instructing methods. This evaluation offers data-driven insights for steady enchancment in arithmetic schooling.

In abstract, rating distributions inside the context of AMC 8 historic outcomes supply a strong software for understanding pupil efficiency tendencies, evaluating instructional effectiveness, and informing future competitors and curriculum improvement. These distributions, alongside different historic information, contribute to a complete image of mathematical aptitude improvement over time and information strategic enhancements in arithmetic schooling. This data-driven strategy offers a strong framework for making certain the continued relevance and effectiveness of mathematical instruction and evaluation.

2. Award cutoffs

Award cutoffs signify a vital element of AMC 8 historic outcomes, serving as efficiency benchmarks and motivating components for members. These cutoffs, established for distinctions such because the Distinguished Honor Roll and Honor Roll, are decided yearly primarily based on the general efficiency of the coed inhabitants. Inspecting historic cutoff information reveals tendencies in pupil achievement and the evolving issue of the competitors. A constant upward pattern in cutoffs would possibly counsel an growing stage of competitors or enhancements in total mathematical proficiency amongst members. Conversely, a downward pattern might point out a relative lower within the issue of the examination or a shift within the total preparedness of scholars. As an example, a cutoff of 20 for the Distinguished Honor Roll in a single 12 months adopted by a cutoff of twenty-two within the subsequent 12 months signifies a rise within the stage of efficiency required for prime recognition. This understanding is essential for educators, college students, and competitors organizers.

The sensible significance of analyzing award cutoffs lies of their capacity to tell future preparation methods. College students can gauge the extent of effort required to realize particular distinctions by evaluating their efficiency towards historic cutoffs. Educators can use this info to regulate curriculum and instructing strategies, specializing in areas the place college students traditionally fall wanting award thresholds. Competitors organizers profit from this information by making certain the continued relevance and problem of the competitors. For instance, if a big share of scholars constantly obtain the very best award stage, it’d counsel the necessity to introduce tougher questions in future competitions to keep up an acceptable stage of issue and differentiation. Conversely, if a good portion of scholars wrestle to achieve even the bottom award tier, it’d point out the necessity for changes in competitors design or elevated assist for pupil preparation.

In abstract, AMC 8 award cutoffs present important context inside the broader image of historic outcomes. Analyzing these cutoffs reveals tendencies in pupil efficiency, informs preparation methods, and ensures the continued relevance and effectiveness of the AMC 8 competitors. This data-driven strategy, coupled with the examination of different historic information like rating distributions and drawback issue evaluation, gives beneficial insights for fostering excellence in arithmetic schooling and selling a deeper understanding of the evolving panorama of mathematical proficiency amongst center college college students. The continued evaluation of this information is important for sustaining the integrity and worth of the competitors as a software for encouraging mathematical progress and achievement.

3. Drawback issue evaluation

Drawback issue evaluation is integral to understanding AMC 8 historic outcomes. Inspecting previous efficiency on particular person questions offers essential insights into areas of power and weak point inside the pupil inhabitants. This evaluation permits educators, college students, and competitors organizers to determine tendencies in problem-solving skills and adapt their methods accordingly. By analyzing which query sorts constantly pose challenges, focused interventions and curriculum changes might be applied. This data-driven strategy allows a extra targeted and efficient strategy to arithmetic schooling and competitors preparation.

  • Merchandise Response Concept (IRT)

    IRT fashions present a statistical framework for evaluating the issue of particular person questions primarily based on pupil responses. By making use of IRT to historic AMC 8 information, a exact issue stage might be assigned to every query. This enables for comparisons throughout completely different competitors years and facilitates the identification of questions that constantly problem members. For instance, questions requiring advanced geometric reasoning would possibly constantly display increased issue ranges than these involving primary arithmetic operations. This info can inform future take a look at design and guarantee an applicable stability of issue ranges.

  • Subject-Particular Evaluation

    Analyzing efficiency primarily based on particular mathematical matters offers a deeper understanding of pupil strengths and weaknesses. As an example, historic information could reveal persistent challenges in chance or quantity concept. This focused evaluation permits educators to tailor their instruction, specializing in areas the place college students display constant issue. Figuring out these patterns may also inform curriculum improvement, making certain applicable emphasis on difficult ideas. For instance, if historic information constantly reveals low efficiency on questions involving fractions, educators can prioritize the event of stronger foundational expertise on this space.

  • Error Evaluation

    Inspecting widespread errors made on previous AMC 8 questions gives beneficial insights into pupil misconceptions and reasoning patterns. Analyzing incorrect reply decisions reveals particular areas the place college students are inclined to make errors. This info permits educators to deal with these misconceptions immediately and develop focused interventions. As an example, if college students steadily select an incorrect reply that displays a misunderstanding of order of operations, educators can design classes particularly targeted on clarifying this idea. Error evaluation offers a nuanced understanding of pupil considering and guides the event of more practical instructing methods.

  • Comparability with Nationwide Averages

    Evaluating particular person pupil or college efficiency towards nationwide averages on particular drawback sorts contextualizes strengths and weaknesses. This comparability permits educators to evaluate the relative efficiency of their college students in relation to a broader inhabitants. Figuring out areas the place college students carry out considerably above or under the nationwide common can information focused interventions. As an example, if a college’s college students constantly outperform the nationwide common on geometry issues however underperform on algebra issues, educators can modify their curriculum to deal with the relative weak point in algebra whereas persevering with to nurture the power in geometry.

By combining these sides of drawback issue evaluation, a complete understanding of pupil efficiency on the AMC 8 emerges. This multifaceted strategy permits for data-driven enhancements in curriculum, instructing methods, and competitors preparation, finally contributing to a extra strong and efficient arithmetic schooling. Moreover, this evaluation informs the continued improvement and refinement of the AMC 8, making certain its continued relevance as a beneficial software for assessing and fostering mathematical expertise.

4. Nationwide Averages

Nationwide averages present essential context for decoding AMC 8 historic outcomes. These averages, derived from the efficiency of all members throughout the nation, function a benchmark towards which particular person pupil, college, and regional efficiency might be measured. Understanding nationwide averages permits for a extra nuanced interpretation of tendencies in AMC 8 scores and facilitates the identification of areas of power and weak point inside particular populations. This data-driven strategy allows educators, college students, and competitors organizers to make knowledgeable selections relating to curriculum improvement, focused interventions, and competitors preparation.

  • Benchmarking Efficiency

    Nationwide averages function a beneficial benchmark for assessing particular person pupil and college efficiency. Evaluating particular person scores towards the nationwide common offers a measure of relative standing. A rating considerably above the nationwide common signifies robust efficiency relative to the broader inhabitants, whereas a rating under the typical suggests areas the place enchancment could also be wanted. For instance, a pupil scoring 18 on the AMC 8 in a 12 months the place the nationwide common is 12 demonstrates commendable efficiency. Conversely, a rating of 8 in the identical 12 months suggests potential areas for progress. This comparability offers beneficial context for decoding particular person scores.

  • Figuring out Traits

    Analyzing nationwide averages over a number of years reveals tendencies in total efficiency and highlights shifts in mathematical proficiency among the many pupil inhabitants. A constantly growing nationwide common would possibly counsel enhancements in arithmetic schooling at a nationwide stage, whereas a declining common might point out areas requiring consideration. As an example, a gradual improve within the nationwide common rating over a number of years might replicate the constructive affect of recent instructing methodologies or curriculum adjustments. This evaluation permits educators and policymakers to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional initiatives and determine areas for enchancment.

  • Regional Comparisons

    Evaluating regional averages towards the nationwide common offers insights into the relative strengths and weaknesses of various geographic areas. Areas with averages constantly above the nationwide common would possibly point out exemplary instructional practices or a focus of high-performing college students. Conversely, areas constantly under the typical would possibly counsel areas the place further sources or assist are wanted. For instance, if a selected state constantly performs above the nationwide common, it’d point out efficient arithmetic packages in that state. This info permits for the identification of finest practices and informs useful resource allocation.

  • Contextualizing Award Cutoffs

    Nationwide averages present context for decoding the importance of AMC 8 award cutoffs. Understanding the connection between award cutoffs and the nationwide common gives insights into the exclusivity of assorted achievement ranges. For instance, if the cutoff for the Distinguished Honor Roll is considerably above the nationwide common, it signifies a excessive stage of feat relative to the broader inhabitants. Conversely, a cutoff nearer to the typical suggests a extra attainable award stage. This info helps college students, educators, and oldsters perceive the importance of various award distinctions.

By contemplating nationwide averages alongside different historic information equivalent to rating distributions, drawback issue evaluation, and award cutoffs, a complete understanding of AMC 8 efficiency emerges. This data-driven strategy empowers educators, college students, and competitors organizers to make knowledgeable selections and contribute to the continual enchancment of arithmetic schooling. Nationwide averages present a vital reference level for evaluating achievement and figuring out areas for progress, finally fostering a deeper understanding of mathematical proficiency and selling excellence in arithmetic schooling.

5. Particular person Pupil Progress

Particular person pupil progress kinds a vital element inside the broader context of AMC 8 historic outcomes. Monitoring particular person efficiency over a number of years offers beneficial insights into the effectiveness of studying methods, identifies areas requiring additional improvement, and fosters a progress mindset. This longitudinal perspective permits educators and college students to evaluate the affect of interventions and tailor studying plans to maximise particular person potential. Analyzing patterns of enchancment or stagnation on particular query sorts inside the AMC 8 can reveal areas of power and weak point, permitting for focused observe and personalised instruction. As an example, constant enchancment in problem-solving associated to combinatorics demonstrates progress in that space, whereas persistent challenges with geometry questions counsel the necessity for targeted consideration. Inspecting particular person efficiency towards the backdrop of historic AMC 8 information offers a customized benchmark for evaluating progress and setting practical targets.

Historic AMC 8 outcomes supply a wealth of information that may be leveraged to personalize studying pathways. By evaluating particular person pupil efficiency on particular drawback sorts with nationwide averages and award cutoffs from earlier years, educators can determine applicable challenges and tailor instruction accordingly. For instance, a pupil constantly scoring under the nationwide common on issues involving fractions would possibly profit from focused observe utilizing previous AMC 8 questions targeted on this idea. Moreover, entry to historic query units and options allows college students to observe independently, specializing in areas requiring enchancment. Analyzing previous efficiency, together with widespread errors and misconceptions, can inform individualized research plans and result in more practical studying methods. This personalised strategy, grounded in historic information, empowers college students to take possession of their studying and attempt for steady enchancment.

Understanding the connection between particular person pupil progress and AMC 8 historic outcomes is essential for fostering mathematical progress and achievement. This longitudinal perspective, mixed with data-driven insights, empowers college students and educators to make knowledgeable selections, tailor instruction, and monitor progress successfully. By leveraging historic information, personalised studying journeys might be crafted, maximizing particular person potential and fostering a deep appreciation for arithmetic. This strategy not solely enhances preparation for the AMC 8 but in addition cultivates important problem-solving expertise relevant to a variety of educational and real-world challenges. The constant software of this analytical strategy, mixed with devoted effort, contributes to long-term mathematical improvement and success.

6. Curriculum Effectiveness

Curriculum effectiveness is intrinsically linked to AMC 8 historic outcomes. Analyzing efficiency tendencies, notably on particular drawback sorts, offers beneficial insights into the strengths and weaknesses of a given curriculum. This data-driven strategy allows educators to refine instructing methods, allocate sources successfully, and finally enhance pupil outcomes in arithmetic schooling. Inspecting long-term efficiency tendencies illuminates the affect of curricular adjustments and informs ongoing improvement. Constant enchancment in particular areas following a curriculum adjustment suggests its constructive affect, whereas persistent challenges could necessitate additional revisions. This cyclical means of analysis and refinement, knowledgeable by AMC 8 historic outcomes, ensures the continued relevance and effectiveness of arithmetic curricula.

  • Alignment with AMC 8 Content material

    A curriculum’s alignment with the AMC 8 content material area immediately influences pupil preparedness. Shut alignment ensures college students develop the required problem-solving expertise and conceptual understanding required for achievement. For instance, a curriculum emphasizing quantity concept and combinatorics, distinguished matters within the AMC 8, higher prepares college students than one focusing totally on geometry. Historic AMC 8 outcomes present insights into content material areas requiring better emphasis inside the curriculum. Persistently low scores on issues associated to a particular matter, equivalent to chance, spotlight areas needing curricular changes or enhanced educational focus.

  • Improvement of Drawback-Fixing Abilities

    Past content material information, the AMC 8 assesses problem-solving skills. Efficient curricula foster vital considering, logical reasoning, and strategic approaches to problem-solving. A curriculum incorporating problem-solving actions, related in model and issue to AMC 8 issues, higher equips college students than one emphasizing rote memorization. Analyzing historic AMC 8 outcomes, particularly efficiency on advanced multi-step issues, reveals the effectiveness of a curriculum in creating these higher-order considering expertise. Constant enchancment in tackling such issues suggests the curriculum’s success in fostering problem-solving proficiency.

  • Longitudinal Efficiency Traits

    Monitoring pupil efficiency over a number of years, inside the context of AMC 8 historic outcomes, offers a longitudinal perspective on curriculum effectiveness. Constant enchancment in scores after implementing a brand new curriculum suggests its constructive affect. Conversely, stagnant or declining scores would possibly point out the necessity for revisions. As an example, a gradual improve in common scores following the introduction of a problem-solving targeted curriculum demonstrates its effectiveness. Analyzing longitudinal tendencies alongside adjustments in curriculum design offers beneficial data-driven insights for steady enchancment.

  • Influence of Focused Interventions

    Analyzing AMC 8 historic outcomes helps consider the affect of focused interventions designed to deal with particular weaknesses recognized inside a curriculum. For instance, if historic information reveals constant challenges with geometry issues, a college would possibly implement a supplemental geometry program. Subsequent enchancment in geometry scores on the AMC 8 demonstrates the intervention’s effectiveness. This data-driven strategy allows educators to evaluate the affect of interventions and refine their methods for maximizing pupil success.

By analyzing AMC 8 historic outcomes, educators acquire actionable insights into curriculum effectiveness. This data-driven strategy, encompassing content material alignment, problem-solving ability improvement, longitudinal efficiency tendencies, and the affect of focused interventions, informs curriculum design, educational methods, and useful resource allocation. The cyclical means of analysis and refinement, guided by AMC 8 information, ensures that arithmetic curricula stay related, difficult, and efficient in getting ready college students for the complexities of higher-level arithmetic and problem-solving in varied contexts. The continued evaluation of those outcomes offers a strong framework for steady enchancment in arithmetic schooling.

7. Development Identification

Development identification is important for extracting significant insights from AMC 8 historic outcomes. Analyzing efficiency information over a number of years reveals patterns that inform curriculum improvement, pedagogical changes, and competitors preparation methods. These tendencies, reflecting shifts in pupil efficiency on particular mathematical matters or total problem-solving skills, present beneficial data-driven steering for educators, college students, and competitors organizers. As an example, a constant decline in efficiency on questions involving geometric proofs would possibly counsel a necessity for better emphasis on deductive reasoning expertise inside the curriculum. Conversely, a gradual enchancment in scores associated to quantity concept might point out the effectiveness of a newly adopted instructing strategy. Figuring out these tendencies allows proactive interventions and fosters a steady enchancment cycle in arithmetic schooling.

The sensible significance of pattern identification lies in its predictive energy. Recognizing rising tendencies permits educators to anticipate potential challenges and proactively modify instructing methods. For instance, if information reveals a rising issue with issues involving algebraic manipulation, educators can incorporate extra focused observe on this space, doubtlessly mitigating future declines in efficiency. Moreover, pattern identification facilitates the event of more practical competitors preparation methods. By analyzing historic tendencies in drawback sorts and issue ranges, college students can focus their observe on areas almost certainly to seem on future exams. This data-driven strategy maximizes preparation effectivity and will increase the probability of success. Furthermore, understanding long-term tendencies in AMC 8 efficiency offers beneficial insights into the evolving panorama of arithmetic schooling. As an example, a constant improve in nationwide common scores over time would possibly replicate the constructive affect of nationwide initiatives geared toward enhancing arithmetic instruction. Conversely, persistent disparities in efficiency throughout completely different demographic teams might spotlight areas requiring focused interventions to make sure equitable entry to high quality arithmetic schooling. These insights inform coverage selections and useful resource allocation, contributing to systemic enhancements in arithmetic schooling.

In conclusion, pattern identification inside AMC 8 historic outcomes is essential for data-driven decision-making in arithmetic schooling. By analyzing efficiency patterns over time, educators, college students, and competitors organizers acquire beneficial insights that inform curriculum improvement, educational methods, and competitors preparation. This analytical strategy, coupled with a dedication to steady enchancment, empowers stakeholders to maximise pupil potential and foster a deeper understanding of arithmetic. Recognizing and responding to tendencies ensures the continued relevance and effectiveness of the AMC 8 as a beneficial software for assessing and nurturing mathematical expertise. The constant software of pattern evaluation contributes to a extra strong and dynamic arithmetic schooling panorama, benefiting college students, educators, and the broader neighborhood.

Regularly Requested Questions

This part addresses widespread inquiries relating to AMC 8 historic outcomes, offering readability and steering for college kids, educators, and different events. Understanding these information sources empowers knowledgeable decision-making and helps steady enchancment in arithmetic schooling.

Query 1: The place can archived AMC 8 issues and options be accessed?

Previous AMC 8 issues and options are sometimes obtainable on the Mathematical Affiliation of America (MAA) web site and thru varied on-line sources devoted to arithmetic competitions. These sources usually supply complete archives relationship again a number of years, offering ample materials for observe and evaluation.

Query 2: How can historic AMC 8 information inform present instructing practices?

Analyzing previous efficiency tendencies, particularly areas of power and weak point on explicit drawback sorts, permits educators to determine areas needing better educational focus. This data-driven strategy allows curriculum changes and focused interventions to deal with particular studying gaps.

Query 3: What’s the significance of AMC 8 award cutoffs?

Award cutoffs, established yearly for distinctions such because the Distinguished Honor Roll and Honor Roll, function efficiency benchmarks. Analyzing historic cutoff tendencies offers context for present efficiency and informs preparation methods.

Query 4: How can particular person pupil progress be tracked utilizing AMC 8 historic information?

Evaluating particular person pupil efficiency over a number of years, towards the backdrop of nationwide averages and historic cutoffs, permits for personalised progress monitoring. This longitudinal perspective helps determine particular person studying trajectories and informs focused interventions.

Query 5: How can faculties use AMC 8 historic outcomes to guage curriculum effectiveness?

Analyzing school-wide efficiency tendencies on the AMC 8 over time offers insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the applied curriculum. This data-driven strategy allows evidence-based curriculum changes and focused skilled improvement for educators.

Query 6: How can analyzing AMC 8 historic outcomes profit college students getting ready for future competitions?

Entry to previous issues and options permits college students to familiarize themselves with the model and issue of the AMC 8. Analyzing historic information additionally reveals widespread drawback sorts and areas requiring targeted observe, enabling more practical preparation methods.

By understanding and using AMC 8 historic outcomes successfully, educators and college students can acquire beneficial insights into mathematical proficiency, determine areas for enchancment, and foster a data-driven strategy to arithmetic schooling.

The following sections will delve into particular examples of use these sources successfully, offering sensible steering for making use of this info in varied instructional settings.

Suggestions for Using AMC 8 Historic Outcomes

Strategic use of historic information enhances preparation and fosters a deeper understanding of the AMC 8. The next suggestions present sensible steering for leveraging these sources successfully.

Tip 1: Familiarize oneself with the construction and content material of previous exams. Reviewing prior AMC 8 questions exposes one to the standard format, query sorts, and issue ranges. This familiarization reduces take a look at anxiousness and permits for more practical time administration throughout the precise competitors.

Tip 2: Determine recurring themes and matters. Analyzing historic outcomes reveals patterns in query distribution throughout completely different mathematical matters. This enables for targeted observe in areas steadily assessed, equivalent to quantity concept, geometry, and combinatorics.

Tip 3: Analyze drawback issue tendencies. Historic information usually reveals tendencies in drawback issue. Specializing in query sorts with traditionally excessive issue ranges permits for focused observe and ability improvement in difficult areas.

Tip 4: Make the most of previous options for focused studying. Reviewing options to previous issues offers insights into efficient problem-solving methods and divulges widespread errors to keep away from. This focused strategy enhances conceptual understanding and improves problem-solving proficiency.

Tip 5: Monitor particular person progress towards historic benchmarks. Evaluating particular person efficiency towards historic averages and award cutoffs offers a customized benchmark for measuring progress and figuring out areas requiring additional consideration. This data-driven strategy promotes focused studying and encourages steady enchancment.

Tip 6: Incorporate historic issues into common observe. Integrating previous AMC 8 issues into common research routines enhances familiarity with the competitors format and strengthens problem-solving expertise. This constant observe reinforces discovered ideas and builds confidence.

Tip 7: Analyze widespread errors to refine problem-solving approaches. Inspecting widespread errors made on previous AMC 8 questions reveals patterns in misconceptions and reasoning gaps. Addressing these recurring errors strengthens conceptual understanding and refines problem-solving methods.

By constantly making use of the following pointers, college students and educators can leverage the wealth of data obtainable in AMC 8 historic outcomes to enhance efficiency, improve understanding, and foster a deeper appreciation for arithmetic.

The next conclusion synthesizes the important thing takeaways and underscores the importance of using historic information for attaining success within the AMC 8 and past.

Conclusion

Exploration of AMC 8 historic outcomes reveals important worth for college kids, educators, and competitors organizers. Evaluation of previous efficiency information, together with rating distributions, award cutoffs, and drawback issue tendencies, offers actionable insights for focused studying, curriculum improvement, and competitors preparation. Understanding nationwide averages and particular person pupil progress inside a historic context empowers data-driven decision-making and fosters steady enchancment. Efficient utilization of archived issues and options enhances familiarity with the competitors format, strengthens problem-solving expertise, and promotes a deeper understanding of mathematical ideas.

Continued engagement with AMC 8 historic outcomes stays important for optimizing arithmetic schooling and fostering a tradition of data-driven enchancment. Strategic software of those sources empowers college students to realize their full potential, equips educators with beneficial insights, and ensures the continued relevance and effectiveness of the AMC 8 in selling mathematical excellence. Constant evaluation and considerate software of those outcomes contribute considerably to the development of arithmetic schooling and domesticate a lifelong appreciation for the facility and fantastic thing about arithmetic.